đ Read the full study in Forest, Trees and Livelihoods (2026): https://doi.org/10.1080/14728028.2026.2627646 or contact Dr. Pete Bettinger for more information.
Dr. Pete Bettinger and collaborators, Bruno da Silva, Jacek Siry, Stephen Kinane, and Krista Merry, examined how forest landscapes in the eastern United States have evolved over time, focusing on how economic incentives and the concept of a forest business have shaped land use decisions. The study, published in Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, shows that forest conditions are not driven solely by ecological processes, but heavily influenced by markets, policies, and landowner objectives.
How the Study Worked
The study takes a historical, qualitative approach focused on the eastern United States. The authors conducted archival research using historical documents sourced primarily from the HathiTrust Digital Library, complemented with additional literature from Google Scholar and Web of Science.
The analysis uses the ecosystem cascade framework, which connects ecosystem functions to measurable services, markets, and economic outcomes. The study integrates evidence across multiple historical periods to understand how forest business models and income opportunities have evolved over time.
The Evolution of Forest Business and Landscape Change
One of the central insights is that forest landscapes in the eastern United States reflect changing economic opportunities. Early forest use was dominated by timber extraction and land clearing for agriculture, often following short-term âcut-and-runâ strategies that prioritized immediate returns.
Over time, concerns about resource depletion, rising wood demand, and increasing prices led to a transition toward long-term forest management and investment-based forestry. Forest ownership increasingly became a business centered on sustained yields, financial returns, and land value appreciation.
Expanding Income Opportunities and Natural Capital
The study highlights that forest businesses have evolved from relying almost entirely on timber to incorporating multiple revenue streams. Today, income opportunities may include carbon markets, conservation programs, recreational leases, and other ecosystem services linked to natural capital.
However, these opportunities require access to information, financing, and technical capacity. As a result, participation in emerging natural capital markets may be uneven, with smaller landowners facing greater barriers due to transaction, monitoring, and verification costs.
Changing Forest Landscapes and Market Dynamics
The paper also shows that forest landscapes have stabilized in area over the long term, despite earlier periods of extensive deforestation. This reflects both improvements in forest management and the role of markets in supporting reforestation and sustained production.
At the same time, new revenue streams may alter management decisions in complex ways. For example, programs that delay harvest or promote conservation may shift production to other locations, meaning that landscape-level impacts depend on broader market dynamics.
Why This Matters for Forestry Professionals
For forestry professionals, this research highlights that forest management is fundamentally tied to economic incentives and market structures. Decisions about harvesting, investment, and land use are increasingly influenced by a growing portfolio of revenue opportunities beyond timber.
The study underscores the importance of understanding how emerging marketsâsuch as carbon and biodiversity programsâinteract with traditional forest product markets. It also emphasizes the need to design policies and market mechanisms that enable participation across different types of landowners while maintaining viable forest supply chains.
What the Public Should Know
For the general public, the key takeaway is that forests are shaped as much by human decisions as by natural processes. The forests we see today are the result of evolving markets, policies, and landowner choices over time.
While new opportunities like carbon markets can help support environmental goals, their effectiveness depends on how well they are designed and how they interact with existing economic systems. Supporting forests ultimately requires ensuring that landowners have viable and sustainable ways to earn income from their land.
